Showing Compound Daidzein (FDB002608)

Record Information

Version

1.0

Creation date

2010-04-08 22:05:27 UTC

Update date

2019-11-26 02:57:41 UTC

Primary ID

FDB002608

Secondary Accession Numbers

Not Available

Chemical Information

FooDB Name

Daidzein

Description

Widespread isoflavone in the Leguminosae, especies Phaseolus subspecies (broad beans, lima beans); also found in soy and soy products (tofu, miso), chick peas (Cicer arietinum) and peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). Nutriceutical with anticancer and bone protective props. Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered. (PMID: 18045128, 17579894, Curr Med Chem. 2007;14(26):2824-30., Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007 Jul;51(7):765-81.) Daidzein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products. .

CAS Number

486-66-8

Structure

MOL SDF 3D-SDF PDB SMILES InChI View 3D Structure

Synonyms

Synonym	Source
4',7-Dihydroxyisoflavone	ChEBI
7,4'-Dihydroxyisoflavone	ChEBI
7-Hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-benzopyrone	ChEBI
7-Hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one	ChEBI
Daidzeol	ChEBI
Isoaurostatin	ChEBI
Diadzein	MeSH
4',7-Dihydroxy-isoflavone	HMDB
7-Hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-chromone	biospider
7-Hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, 9CI	db_source
7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-chromen-4-one	biospider
Daidzein	db_source
Daizeol	db_source
Dimethylbiochanin B	db_source
K 251-6	db_source
Tatoin	db_source

Predicted Properties

Property	Value	Source
Water Solubility	0.085 g/L	ALOGPS
logP	3.3	ALOGPS
logP	2.73	ChemAxon
logS	-3.5	ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)	6.48	ChemAxon
pKa (Strongest Basic)	-5.3	ChemAxon
Physiological Charge	-1	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count	4	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count	2	ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area	66.76 Å²	ChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count	1	ChemAxon
Refractivity	69.7 m³·mol⁻¹	ChemAxon
Polarizability	25.75 Å³	ChemAxon
Number of Rings	3	ChemAxon
Bioavailability	Yes	ChemAxon
Rule of Five	Yes	ChemAxon
Ghose Filter	Yes	ChemAxon
Veber's Rule	No	ChemAxon
MDDR-like Rule	No	ChemAxon

Chemical Formula

C15H10O4

IUPAC name

7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-chromen-4-one

InChI Identifier

InChI=1S/C15H10O4/c16-10-3-1-9(2-4-10)13-8-19-14-7-11(17)5-6-12(14)15(13)18/h1-8,16-17H

InChI Key

ZQSIJRDFPHDXIC-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Isomeric SMILES

OC1=CC=C(C=C1)C1=COC2=C(C=CC(O)=C2)C1=O

Average Molecular Weight

254.241

Monoisotopic Molecular Weight

254.057908802

Classification

Description

Belongs to the class of organic compounds known as isoflavones. These are polycyclic compounds containing a 2-isoflavene skeleton which bears a ketone group at the C4 carbon atom.

Kingdom

Organic compounds

Super Class

Phenylpropanoids and polyketides

Class

Isoflavonoids

Sub Class

Isoflav-2-enes

Direct Parent

Isoflavones

Alternative Parents

Substituents

Isoflavone
Hydroxyisoflavonoid
Chromone
Benzopyran
1-benzopyran
Pyranone
Phenol
1-hydroxy-2-unsubstituted benzenoid
Benzenoid
Monocyclic benzene moiety
Pyran
Heteroaromatic compound
Oxacycle
Organoheterocyclic compound
Organooxygen compound
Organic oxygen compound
Hydrocarbon derivative
Organic oxide
Aromatic heteropolycyclic compound

Molecular Framework

Aromatic heteropolycyclic compounds

External Descriptors

7-hydroxyisoflavones (CHEBI:28197 )
isoflavones (C10208 )
Isoflavonoids (C10208 )
Isoflavonoids (LMPK12050038 )
an isoflavone (DAIDZEIN )
a 4'-hydroxyisoflavone (DAIDZEIN )

Ontology

Disposition

Route of exposure:

Enteral:

Ingestion

Source:

Food

Biological:

Animal

Plant:

Biological location:

Subcellular:

Biofluid and excreta:

Role

Industrial application:

Pharmaceutical industry:

Pharmaceutical

Antineoplastic agent:

Antitumor

Foods

Nuts and legumes:

Legumes:

Physico-Chemical Properties

Physico-Chemical Properties - Experimental

Property	Value	Reference
Physical state	Solid
Physical Description	Not Available
Mass Composition	C 70.86%; H 3.96%; O 25.17%	DFC
Melting Point	Mp 330° (323°)	DFC
Boiling Point	Not Available
Experimental Water Solubility	Not Available
Experimental logP	Not Available
Experimental pKa	Not Available
Isoelectric point	Not Available
Charge	Not Available
Optical Rotation	Not Available
Spectroscopic UV Data	[neutral] lmax 252 (e 25400) (MeOH) (Derep)	DFC
Density	Not Available
Refractive Index	Not Available

Spectra

EI-MS/GC-MS

Type	Description	Splash Key	View
GC-MS	Daidzein, non-derivatized, GC-MS Spectrum	splash10-001j-1928000000-f956e5fd0e616ef96161	Spectrum
GC-MS	Daidzein, 2 TMS, GC-MS Spectrum	splash10-000t-1619000000-eb2f87cd7d535b4d0446	Spectrum
GC-MS	Daidzein, non-derivatized, GC-MS Spectrum	splash10-001j-1928000000-f956e5fd0e616ef96161	Spectrum
GC-MS	Daidzein, non-derivatized, GC-MS Spectrum	splash10-000t-1619000000-eb2f87cd7d535b4d0446	Spectrum
GC-MS	Daidzein, non-derivatized, GC-MS Spectrum	splash10-001j-1927000000-87f11afa0cde5b353147	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Daidzein, non-derivatized, Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - 70eV, Positive	splash10-004i-1390000000-0ff8f0de4d2d339f9357	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Daidzein, 2 TMS, Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - 70eV, Positive	splash10-00gi-4229000000-71c73470904ad7b680ee	Spectrum
Predicted GC-MS	Daidzein, non-derivatized, Predicted GC-MS Spectrum - 70eV, Positive	Not Available	Spectrum

MS/MS

Type	Description	Splash Key	View
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 10V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-0udi-0090000000-20d2c8ade6aac1f46e8a	2012-07-25	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 25V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-0udi-0970000000-a2349152106bd9da1257	2012-07-25	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - Quattro_QQQ 40V, Positive (Annotated)	splash10-0006-9100000000-691c394958fd19d47510	2012-07-25	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-APPI-QQ (API2000) , Positive	splash10-0f7x-4900000000-5acb56232432597c00e5	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-APPI-QQ (API2000) , Positive	splash10-0pej-1930000000-89bedfb39603a12f3c75	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-APPI-QQ (API2000) , Positive	splash10-0a4i-0490000000-c633d3449d8bb0206fc2	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-APPI-QQ (API2000) , Positive	splash10-0a4i-0190000000-3a5de741e814e47d5cbe	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-APPI-QQ (API2000) , Positive	splash10-0a4i-0090000000-fb84819005f7f65b4fc8	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-APPI-QQ (API2000) , Positive	splash10-0a4i-0090000000-b3ae695d217c756a5f8f	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) 5V, Positive	splash10-0a4i-0090000000-d25bba2f5a1ac12e3d86	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) , Negative	splash10-0udi-0190000000-a9b6c8c416cb482a5dc1	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) , Negative	splash10-0089-1970000000-f6070acf0fd663c4ae6f	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) , Positive	splash10-0uem-1900000000-fa199caebb806e9eb0f9	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) , Positive	splash10-0a4i-0490000000-3defe1cbaf29e0cd2d1f	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) , Positive	splash10-0a4i-1790000000-2502633932fc66220039	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) , Negative	splash10-0udi-0290000000-56b4c039a64ab57d3e70	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
MS/MS	LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-QTOF (UPLC Q-Tof Premier, Waters) 30V, Negative	splash10-0089-2970000000-f32e85ba94cb6621d4f1	2012-08-31	View Spectrum
Predicted MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive	splash10-0a4i-0090000000-7dcbed418d38de120895	2015-04-24	View Spectrum
Predicted MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive	splash10-0a4i-0090000000-c522d590074eabe8c4c4	2015-04-24	View Spectrum
Predicted MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive	splash10-002r-6950000000-7b85969731514bf2d0bc	2015-04-24	View Spectrum
Predicted MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative	splash10-0udi-0090000000-388d21c85a84d4e0988a	2015-04-25	View Spectrum
Predicted MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative	splash10-0udi-0090000000-cc8371583b5ba50a4f0d	2015-04-25	View Spectrum
Predicted MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negative	splash10-0gbi-3950000000-cb120c48a579b9363f74	2015-04-25	View Spectrum
Predicted MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive	splash10-0a4i-0090000000-7dcbed418d38de120895	2015-05-26	View Spectrum
Predicted MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive	splash10-0a4i-0090000000-c522d590074eabe8c4c4	2015-05-26	View Spectrum

NMR

Type	Description	View
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 600 MHz, 100%_DMSO, experimental)	Spectrum
1D NMR	¹H NMR Spectrum (1D, 600 MHz, DMSO, experimental)	Spectrum
2D NMR	[¹H, ¹³C]-HSQC NMR Spectrum (2D, 600 MHz, 100%_DMSO, experimental)	Spectrum

External Links

ChemSpider ID

ChEMBL ID

KEGG Compound ID

Pubchem Compound ID

Pubchem Substance ID

Not Available

ChEBI ID

28197

Phenol-Explorer ID

394

DrugBank ID

Not Available

HMDB ID

HMDB03312

CRC / DFC (Dictionary of Food Compounds) ID

CMR01-H:CMR01-H

EAFUS ID

Not Available

Dr. Duke ID

TATOIN|DAIDZEIN

BIGG ID

Not Available

KNApSAcK ID

C00009380

HET ID

Not Available

Food Biomarker Ontology

Not Available

VMH ID

Not Available

Flavornet ID

Not Available

GoodScent ID

Not Available

SuperScent ID

Not Available

Wikipedia ID

Daidzein

Phenol-Explorer Metabolite ID

394

Duplicate IDS

Not Available

Old DFC IDS

Not Available

Associated Foods

Food	Content Range	Average	Reference
Food			Reference

Biological Effects and Interactions

Health Effects / Bioactivities

Descriptor	ID	Definition	Reference
Anti-alcoholic	52217	An agent that reduces alcohol cravings and withdrawal symptoms, commonly used in managing alcohol dependence and addiction, aiding in the treatment of alcohol use disorder by blocking the rewarding aspects of alcohol consumption.	DUKE
Anti-arrhythmic	38070	An agent that regulates heart rhythm, correcting irregular heartbeat patterns. Therapeutically, it restores normal cardiac function, commonly used to manage arrhythmias, prevent sudden cardiac death, and treat conditions like atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia.	DUKE
Anti-cancer	35610	An agent that inhibits the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, used to treat and manage various types of cancer, including chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, to reduce tumor size, prevent metastasis, and improve patient survival.	DUKE
Anti cephalagic	52217	An agent that relieves headache symptoms, commonly used in managing migraines and other cephalalgias. Its biological role involves inhibiting pain pathways, and its therapeutic applications include reducing inflammation and alleviating vascular headaches, making it a key medical use in neurology and pain management.	DUKE
Anti dipsomanic		An agent that reduces the compulsion to drink alcoholic beverages, aiding in the management of alcohol use disorder. Its biological role involves modulating neurotransmitters that regulate craving and reward. Therapeutically, it helps decrease alcohol consumption and withdrawal symptoms, making it a key medical use in the treatment of alcohol dependence and addiction.	DUKE
Anti estrogenic	35222	An agent that blocks or reduces estrogen's effects, used to treat hormone-sensitive cancers, such as breast cancer, and manage conditions like endometriosis and uterine fibroids, by inhibiting estrogen's biological role in promoting cell growth.	DUKE
Anti-hemolytic	50248	An agent that prevents or reduces the breakdown of red blood cells, used to treat conditions such as hemolytic anemia, and other disorders where red blood cell destruction occurs, promoting healthy red blood cell count and preventing related complications.	DUKE
Anti-inflammatory	35472	An agent that reduces inflammation, playing a biological role in suppressing immune responses and therapeutic applications in managing pain, swelling, and redness. Key medical uses include treating arthritis, allergies, and autoimmune disorders, as well as relieving symptoms of conditions such as asthma and dermatitis.	DUKE
Anti leukemic	35610	An agent that targets and inhibits the growth of leukemia cells, playing a crucial role in cancer treatment. Therapeutically, it is used to induce remission, manage symptoms, and improve survival rates in patients with leukemia. Key medical uses include treating acute and chronic leukemia, lymphoma, and other hematological malignancies.	DUKE
Anti-melanomic	35610	An agent that inhibits melanin production, reducing melanoma cell growth. It has therapeutic applications in treating skin cancers, particularly melanoma, and key medical uses include preventing tumor progression and metastasis, as well as managing pigmentation disorders.	DUKE
Anti microbial	33281	An agent that inhibits the growth of microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, playing a crucial role in preventing infections. Therapeutically, it is used to treat various infectious diseases, with key medical applications including wound care, respiratory infections, and gastrointestinal infections, ultimately reducing the risk of infection and promoting healing.	DUKE
Anti-mutagenic		An agent that interferes with the mutagenicity of a substance, preventing DNA damage and mutations. Its biological role is to protect cells from genetic alterations, and it has therapeutic applications in cancer prevention and treatment, as well as key medical uses in reducing the risk of genetic disorders and birth defects.	DUKE
Anti osteoporotic	52217	An agent that prevents or treats osteoporosis by promoting bone density, reducing bone resorption, and increasing calcium absorption, commonly used in managing osteoporosis, osteopenia, and preventing fractures.	DUKE
Anti-oxidant	22586	An agent that neutralizes free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and cell damage. Its biological role involves protecting cells from harm, and it has therapeutic applications in managing chronic diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders, with key medical uses including anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and cardio protective effects.	DUKE
Anti-proliferative		An agent that inhibits cell growth and division, particularly in cancer cells, preventing tumor expansion. It plays a biological role in regulating cell cycles and has therapeutic applications in cancer treatment, such as chemotherapy and targeted therapy, with key medical uses in managing various types of cancer and other proliferative diseases.	DUKE
Anti radicular		An agent that relieves inflammation or irritation of the nerve root of a tooth, reducing pain and discomfort. Its biological role is to target and alleviate radicular pain, with therapeutic applications in endodontics and key medical uses in root canal treatments and tooth sensitivity management.	DUKE
Anti-spasmodic	52217	An agent that relaxes smooth muscle, reducing muscle spasms and cramps. It plays a biological role in regulating muscle tone and is therapeutically applied to treat conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome, menstrual cramps, and muscle spasms, providing relief from abdominal pain and discomfort.	DUKE
Antitumor promoter	35610	An agent that inhibits tumor growth and progression, reducing cancer cell proliferation. Therapeutically, it prevents tumor development and spread, with key medical uses in cancer prevention and treatment, particularly in combating carcinogenesis and metastasis.	DUKE
Anti-viral	22587	An agent that inhibits the replication of viruses, playing a crucial role in preventing and treating viral infections. Therapeutically, anti-virals are used to manage diseases such as HIV, herpes, and influenza, reducing symptoms and slowing disease progression. Key medical uses include treating viral hepatitis, respiratory syncytial virus, and COVID-19.	DUKE
Aromatase inhibitor	50790	An agent that blocks the activity of aromatase, an enzyme converting androgens to estrogens, reducing estrogen levels. Therapeutically, it's used to treat hormone-sensitive breast cancer, endometriosis, and infertility, by decreasing estrogen-dependent growth and symptoms.	DUKE
Cancer preventive	35610	An agent that inhibits the development and progression of cancer, reducing tumor formation and growth. It plays a biological role in blocking carcinogenic pathways, and has therapeutic applications in chemoprevention. Key medical uses include reducing the risk of cancer in high-risk individuals and preventing cancer recurrence.	DUKE
Coronarydilator		An agent that dilates coronary vessels, increasing blood flow to the heart. Its biological role is to reduce cardiac workload and improve oxygen delivery. Therapeutically, it's used to treat angina, myocardial infarction, and other cardiovascular conditions, improving cardiac function and reducing symptoms.	DUKE
Estrogen agonist	63951	An agent that mimics the action of estrogen, regulating female reproductive and sexual health. Therapeutically, it's used to manage menopausal symptoms, osteoporosis, and certain reproductive disorders, promoting bone density and relieving symptoms associated with estrogen deficiency.	DUKE
Estrogenic		An agent that mimics the effects of estrogen, regulating female reproductive processes and development. Therapeutically, estrogenic agents are used in hormone replacement therapy, contraception, and treating menopausal symptoms, as well as certain cases of osteoporosis and infertility.	DUKE
Fungicide	24127	An agent that kills or inhibits the growth of fungi, playing a biological role in preventing fungal infections. Therapeutically, it is used to treat fungal diseases, with key medical applications including athlete's foot, ringworm, and candidiasis, as well as agricultural uses to protect crops from fungal damage.	DUKE
Hypotensive		An agent that lowers blood pressure, playing a biological role in regulating cardiovascular function. Therapeutically, it's used to manage hypertension, heart failure, and angina, with key medical applications in preventing stroke, kidney disease, and cardiac complications.	DUKE
Lipase inhibitor	23924	An agent that blocks the activity of lipase, an enzyme that breaks down fats. It reduces fat absorption, commonly used in managing obesity and weight loss, particularly in combination with a low-calorie diet.	DUKE
Quinone-reductase inducer		An agent that stimulates quinone reductase enzymatic activity, enhancing cellular antioxidant defenses and protecting against carcinogens, with therapeutic applications in cancer chemoprevention and potential uses in managing oxidative stress-related diseases.	DUKE
Topoisomerase-II inhibitor	50750	An agent that blocks the activity of topoisomerase-II, an enzyme involved in DNA replication. It prevents cancer cell growth by disrupting DNA structure, commonly used in chemotherapy to treat various types of cancer, including leukemia and lymphoma.	DUKE
Topoisomerase-I inhibitor	50276	An agent that blocks the activity of topoisomerase I, an enzyme involved in DNA replication. It is used therapeutically in cancer treatment, particularly for solid tumors, by inducing DNA damage and inhibiting cancer cell growth, with key medical uses in colorectal, lung, and breast cancers.	DUKE
Utero trophic	52217	A hormone that stimulates uterine growth and development, playing a crucial role in pregnancy. Therapeutically, it's used to support embryonic implantation and fetal development, with key medical applications in infertility treatments, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) and recurrent miscarriage prevention.	DUKE
VEGF inhibitor	35222	An agent that blocks the activity of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), reducing angiogenesis. Therapeutically, it's used to treat cancer, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy by inhibiting tumor growth and abnormal blood vessel formation.	DUKE

Enzymes

Not Available

Pathways

Not Available

Metabolism

Not Available

Biosynthesis

Not Available

Organoleptic Properties

Flavours

Flavor	Citations
bitter	Ayana Wiener, Marina Shudler, Anat Levit, Masha Y. Niv. BitterDB: a database of bitter compounds. Nucleic Acids Res 2012, 40(Database issue):D413-419. DOI:10.1093/nar/gkr755

Files

MSDS

show

References

Synthesis Reference

Not Available

General Reference

Not Available

Content Reference

— Rothwell JA, Pérez-Jiménez J, Neveu V, Medina-Ramon A, M'Hiri N, Garcia Lobato P, Manach C, Knox K, Eisner R, Wishart D, Scalbert A. (2013) Phenol-Explorer 3.0: a major update of the Phenol-Explorer database to incorporate data on the effects of food processing on polyphenol content. Database, 10.1093/database/bat070.
— U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2008. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 21. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page.
— Shinbo, Y., et al. 'KNApSAcK: a comprehensive species-metabolite relationship database.' Plant Metabolomics. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006. 165-181.
— Duke, James. 'Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. United States Department of Agriculture.' Agricultural Research Service, Accessed April 27 (2004).